Discuss the Relationship Between Persuasion and Attitude Change.

Discuss the relationship between persuasion and attitude change. The procedure of changing attitudes to then furthermore change behaviour has led psychologists to develop research into the topic of how persuasion takes place. The Hovland-Yale model was initially developed to persuade the American public for more support in the last stages of WW2. It was learnt that in order to persuade effectively, the need was to focus on who and what. Principally the content, the audience and the communicator.It was found that the most effective sources were experts as they had more credibility than non-experts, but also popular and attractive sources were more effective than unattractive sources. Bochner & Insko asked students to suggest how much sleep was needed, before showing them two different sources of information – an expert and a non-expert. Students were more persuaded by the expert even when it conflicted with their own beliefs. Another finding from the model found that messages a re more effective if the audience feels that their main purpose is not to persuade.Also, if a message contains a moderate level of fear it becomes more successful. McGuire also found that there was a primacy effect in messages. His research found that when he was trying to persuade students to join a course, he was more persuasive if he gave the positive points first. The final factor involved in the Hovland-Yale model is audience factors. It was seen that moderately intelligent audience members were more easily persuaded and when aiming at high intelligence audience members, it would be more effective to present both sides of the argument.The Elaboration-Likelihood model focuses on the message itself and splits this into two sections. Whether the audience focuses on the main content of the message or if they focus on other factors such as the communicator giving the message. Petty et al. called this the central and peripheral route. The central route audience members focus on the q uality of the arguments and are motivated to think about the message. It’s been suggested that this has a lasting attitude change.The peripheral route is quite the opposite as audience members are not motivated to think about the message and they focus on the peripheral tools (such as music, celebrities, colour) rather than the arguments presented. Attitude change through the peripheral route is temporary. The Hovland-Yale model has good research support for all three factors involved in the model. Morton et al. found that children had more favourable attitudes after being given information from an expert (doctor) than a parent. Lewis et al. ound that fear arousing messages were effective in the short-term, but messages containing humour were more effective in the long-term. However, Fechback et al. found that high fear level was most effective in messages which disputes McGuire’s findings. However, McGuire’s findings can also be explained another way to show su pport. If following the basis of the psychodynamic approach, messages using high fear arousal may trigger defence mechanisms such as denial or repression in audience members, suggesting moderate fear level is the most effective.Research also supports the key points of the Elaboration-Likelihood model. A psychologist supports the claim that the central route is more effective for high need-for-cognition audience members. Models have heavily relied on laboratory based research, which causes us to question the ecological validity. However, real-life application has occurred and found that when students were exposed to a fact-based or emotion-based health campaign, the higher NC individuals were more influenced by the central route (fact-based) and the lower NC were more persuaded by the peripheral route (emotion-based).Although both models are heavily supported by research, many research studies have involved students which brings problems of generalisation. Students have an age, wealt h, and education status which is not typical of the general public. In addition, experimenters have exposed participants solely to their stimuli, whereas in the real world, we are exposed to thousands of media forms everyday; thus lacking in mundane realism.

General Knowledge in Criminal Justice

Every country is governed by a set of laws designed to maintain order within it. There are laws that govern the political relations with its citizens while there are also laws that regulate the civil rights of its citizens. There are a set of rules that define what acts or omissions are considered felonies or offenses and prescribes punishment for violations of these rules. The latter is called the criminal justice system of a country. This criminal justice system is manifested by the enactment of penal laws of the state. Penal laws define what acts are considered crime and determine the proper penalty for its commission. Because of the enactment of penal laws, each state is able to enforce and maintain law and order within its jurisdiction. Society is a complex structure which does not simply function harmoniously by accident. There must be a conscious effort on the part of the state to regulate the behavior of its members. It is because of this reason that the system of punishment was institutionalized and legitimized in our society. Punishment is the action taken by the State for every violation of its laws. Punishment can be considered as a response by the society to any offense or felony committed against it. It may range from the deprivation of liberty of the convicted individual or the payment of fine for the reparation of injury caused. The deprivation of liberty can last from several days or it may extend to several years depending on the nature of the crime committed. If the crime however is heinous capital punishment may be imposed. Classical Theory There are many theories on which our criminal justice system is based. One of the foundations for imposition of the criminal justice system is the Classical Theory. It attempts to give an explanation on the root cause of crime for the purpose of controlling it or preventing it from happening. It argues that man is by nature a moral creature with a free will. This free will gives him the capacity to choose between right and wrong. When man performs an act, the assumption is that the same is a rational and conscious decision arising from a careful calculation of its possible consequences. It is to be presumed that the doer of the act has carefully weighed the consequences of his action so that he will achieve his end-goal which is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Thus, when a person engages in deviant behavior and commits a crime it is to be presumed that he voluntarily and willfully committed it after a careful calculation of both the benefits and risks of its commission. Crime is therefore a product of rational and conscious choice deliberately performed by an individual and not the result of the external forces surrounding him. There are those who hold that crime is a social and natural phenomenon as contradistinguished from the Classical Theory. According to the Positivist Theory, man at times is subdued by a strange and morbid phenomenon which constrains and impels him to do wrong. Though man is by nature good, there are forces around him that makes him commit a wrongful act. Thus, contrary to the Classical School, crime is not a product of a rational and conscious decision that results from carefully weighing the advantages and disadvantages of the act rather it results from interplay of social and external forces that heavily influence the individual. It is because of this reason that the criminal justice system should not be a mere function of strict and inflexible application of the abstract principles of law. Rather, it is the task of the judge to take into consideration such other facts and circumstances that attend the commission of the crime. Retributivism Theory There are those who adhere to the Retributivism Theory. According to this theory, punishment is allowed, whether it is imprisonment or death, because the convicted prisoner deserves it. This is otherwise known as the doctrine of ‘just desert’ which is founded on the ‘eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth† philosophy. When an injury is done to another, an unfair situation is created between the offender and the victim. The imposition of punishment against the wrongdoer removes the unfair advantage and restores the balance. (Anthony Duff, Sec 5) In essence, this theory states that certain actions in the society that are injurious to other people will merit the imposition of imprisonment. When these acts are done willfully and voluntarily by any individual then it is but proper that he be punished for his acts to restore the moral balance and address the moral culpability which are essential in restoring harmony in the society. (Deligitimizing Retribution†2) UtilitarianTheory On the other hand, there are those who believe in the Utilitarian Theory. It argues that state- sanctioned punishment is justified because of its utility. Based on the principle of utility, acts are pursued depending on the desirability of its consequences. If punishment will most likely produce the greatest balance of happiness over unhappiness then the punishment is justified. But if there are other options that would produce a greater balance of happiness over unhappiness, then that option should be chosen and punishment is unjustified. Kevin Murtagh, Sec 1a) In simpler terms, the idea is if we are to weigh the positive effects of punishment as against its negative effects and the positive effects outweighs the negative ones then that punishment has to be imposed. This theory somewhat looks forward and considers the consequences of punishment to the society. Unlike the Retributivist theory which focuses on the benefits to the victim, in Utilitarian Theory the oth er members of the society is considered to benefit from the imprisonment of the convicted prisoner. Deterrence Theory. For example, capital punishment is considered beneficial for the society because it deters the commission of more crimes by other persons. Under the Deterrence Theory, the imposition of the criminal justice system sends a strong message that it is tough on crime. Once a convicted prisoner is imprisoned or sentenced to death it is as if we are saying to the rest of the society that this will happen to those who will violate our laws. It is also an open declaration that there is a war against crime and that any violation of its laws will be seriously dealt with by the state. Once society sees that the violation of a law will have serious consequences to the wrong-doers then this will have a positive effect to the society by deterring criminality. Incapacitation Theory According to Incapacitation Theory, society is also benefited from the imprisonment of the convicted prisoner because it incapacitates him from further committing crimes and reduces recidivism rate. (Lynch and Sabol) Experience shows that those who have previously committed crimes are more likely to commit another crime. There is no more effective way of incapacitating the offender except by removing them from the society. Thus, in the case of imposition of death penalty, a person who is sentenced to death can no longer commit further crimes because he is permanently incapacitated to perform the same. The society is also benefited when wrong-doers are incarcerated or sentenced to death. We also prevent the possibility of these people escaping from prison and committing further crimes. (Thoughts on the Death Penalty p 2) The purpose of this is the protection of the other members of the society. Restorative Justice Theory The Restorative Justice theory is another aspect of the Utilitarian Theory which gives emphasis on the restoration of the criminal offender as one of the purposes of criminal justice system. It seeks to promote the objective of restoring the offender to the mainstream society by making him perform community service, requiring reimbursement and other worthwhile activities while in prison. This is based on the theory that a criminal offender is a socially sick individual. The other members of the society have the moral obligation to give aid and assistance to them.

Education and Society Essay

Education in the United States has become a crucial part of every American’s life. Completing high school opens doors for individual achievement and is directly linked to economic success. But equally important to the completion of high school is a rich and positive experience in the learning process. Educators are skilled in creating great learning experiences and to enhancing the curriculum, while parents are even more influential. Parents are the positive influence for many children who would otherwise be drastically falling behind, failing, or even dropping out of school. The child’s family background, combined with passed down values and experiences will determine the student’s high school education. The role of technology in early childhood education is an effective tool for students, so the lack of technology in a child’s upbringing can affect their educational career. For example, students who do not begin using various types of technology from kindergarten can fall behind. Studies found that students who are less likely to access technology at home can be at an academic disadvantage. This shows how vital technology is in a child’s education, however there is a challenge in making it available to everyone. Particularly low-income or minority college students could have trouble in succeeding in a technology-saturated environment. Some parents don’t parents don’t understand the importance of Internet access, since in their generation, the Internet was a luxury, not a necessity. However, the bigger issue seems to be the gap between Whites who have access to the Internet and minorities. Studies found that â€Å"56% of Latino adults and 60% of African American can use the Internet,compared to 71% of White adults. The same organization finds that while 42% of white families and 41% of Latino 2 families 666subscribe to broadband access,only 31% of African American households have such access. † Even if lower income schools computer labs students need to build their skills at home as well. Early childhood reading for children can bring a positive outcome to a child’s life. What a child learns in their early years are things that will continue to helps them along in their future in school and in the real world. When a child is introduced to early childhood education, they can get many benefits from it. Benefits include learning to interact in new situations, use critical thinking and basic speech skills before kindergarten. According to Maryanne Wolf, â€Å"In most underprivileged communities, no children’s books were found in homes; in the low come to middle income community there were, on average three books; and in the affluent community there were around 200. † Parents need to create an atmosphere where reading takes place in order to show the importance of reading, but low-income families are falling behind. Parents from affluent communities are able to gain access to understanding the importance of reading while parents from lower income don’t have the resources. Its unclear why low income families don’t have as many books in the home, but the issue might be attributed to a poor school library, lack of understanding for the importance of books, or the obvious issue with low financial resources to buy books. Parents from different language background and parents who aren’t literate in English, will likely raise children who have to play catch-up once they enter kindergarten. Reading can’t just happen over night– it needs to be developed over time. If books are limited, discussions and thoughts aren’t spoken out loud, and this can result in problems. Catherine snow of Harvard and her colleagues found that in addition to literacy materials,one of the major contributors to later reading was simply the amount of time for â€Å"talk around dinner† The 3 importance of simply being talked to, read to, and listened to is what much of early development is about†. In a low-income, busy and hard-working parents may not have time to have these simple talks, or even the financial resources to purchase books for there children. These are two important ingredients for a strong educational upbringing that many low-income family parents can not afford. Even though socioeconomic status and the access to technology are key a family’s behavioral and cultural backgrounds have an equal influence on a student. A child is instinctively drawn toward the background of their parents and social settings to learn what is deemed from right to wrong. According to David Brooks â€Å"Educated parents not only pass down resources to their children, they pass down expectations, habits, knowledge and cognitive abilities. Pretty soon you end up with a hereditary meritocratic class that reinforces itself generation after generation†. What David Brooks is saying is that even though the United States has universal access to higher education such as community college but some students may not be â€Å"physiologically prepared and culturally prepared for college†. Children are reaching their parents expectations and are just continuing a cycle. If parents aren’t showing their support in a educational and motivational sense, kids won’t feel the need to fulfill higher education. The time to instill values of education is not when a child becomes a senior in high school; rather the time to start discussing educational values to a child, is the onset of school, preschool. Education provides an individual their path to a successful future, but only through hard work, dedication and determination is this achievable. Education requires a parent to mold a child into an individual that is capable of contributing effectively to society. The drive to learn must be aroused in children and started at an early age.

Discussion Board Post Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Discussion Board Post Response - Essay Example e analysis making out why there are variations in a budget and subsequently creating strategies to address the problem (Laureate Education Inc, 2012). The fact that analyzing the budget reflects the internal financial situation or performance denotes how variations can be identified. Catherine Schneider, your writing also clearly explains the value of variance analysis in decision making. I concur that variance analysis enhances accountability (Zelman, McCue and Glick, 2009) as it is similarly the case in my organization. Analyzing the budget will help identify departments where variations are occurring and the department manager is answerable for any mismanagement of funds. This drives the departmental managers into making more effective pronouncements in terms of staffing and supportive action plans such as trainings to improve employees skills and abilities. This clearly shows that variance analysis determines how managers make decisions. In other words, it forces managers to make more effective decisions. I also agree that variance analysis may reveal the need to expand the budget and give data and information to support the claim. This means that decisions to expand a budget is dependent on budget

Hazards of Aluminium welding fume Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Hazards of Aluminium welding fume - Essay Example Electric welding was introduced in 1940s. Aluminium welding has been in prominence since 1970. There are several types of welding like Arc welding and Manual metal arc is a common process where the workers are exposed to the fumes. Carbon arc, Cold welding, Electron beam welding, Flux core arc welding, Gas welding, Gas metal arc welding, Gas tungsten arc welding, Shielded metal arc welding, Plasma arc welding, Laser beam welding are the other welding processes where workers are exposed to metal fumes. The welding workers have a high exposure of metal fumes and the exposure depends on place, confined space, workshop or open air. The metal fumes depend on not only the Aluminium but also the process involved which may produce gases like acetylene, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen , ozone, phosgene and tungsten. The metal fumes primarily enter the human system by inhalation route namely Respiration.. The deposition of these inhaled metallic particles is influenced by its physical and chemical properties and a variety of host factors. In the lungs, these particles produce a variety of reactions depending on the concentration, duration of the exposure of the particles, and degree of exposure. All Metallic particles greater than 10 are deposited on the Mucous membrane in the nose and pharynx. Particles between 3m and 10 m are deposited throughout the trachea of the lungs. Particles less than 3m are deposited in the alveoli and cause serious hazards. These particles have a fair chance of being carried into the blood stream and cause Hepatotoxicity and Nephrotoxicity. Health Hazards of Aluminium fumes : Hazards of Aluminium fumes have been well documented in various scientific journals. The health hazard assessment is done by sampling and analysis. Sampling has been well prescribed by the Draft British Standard (DD54) for breathing zone and background samples. Chemical analysis techniques for milligram amounts of fume obtained are outlined in DD54; part I.(Moreton,1982) Aluminium work related Asthma has been established by characteristic patterns of repeated peak flow measurements supported by changes in methacholine responsiveness in workers with work related asthma (Konyerud, 1994).A recent study by keith Harrison of the Queens land Fertility group, Australia has proved the testicular toxicity of such Chemicals in male workers. Studies have also proved that exposure of workers to these metal fumes aged between 20-64, admitted to 11 hospitals in England during the period between 1996-1999, caused health hazards and is a classic case of occupational hazard of metal fume exposure (Palmer, 2003). Further studies on 27 welders with long-term exposure to these metal fumes revealed a reversible increase in the risk of Pneumonia. In the sputum, cell counts, soluble levels of the metal, levels of Interleukin-8, tumour necrosis factor-, myeloperoxidase, metalloproteinase -9, Immunoglobulin (Ig)A, 2-macroglobulin and unsaturated metal binding capacity were analyzed and in the blood samples, evidence of neutrophil activation and IgG pneumococcal antibodies were analyzed. The studies concluded that the local inflammatory response was affected by chronic exposure (Palmer,2006). All welding workers thus, are exposed to acute or chronic respiratory disease. Welding fumes cause

Syphilis (oral pathology) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Syphilis (oral pathology) - Research Paper Example In considering the increase in reported cases of syphilis healthcare practitioners, including medical and dental experts, attempted differential diagnoses on oral lesions among those HIV-infected patients. The United States of America has seen the number of reported cases of syphilis in the United States of America rise significantly since 2001; the highest number of reported cases in the world occurred during the period between 2007 and 2008 (Ramirez-Amador et al, 2012). With the number of reported cases of syphilis on the rise, the healthcare community has also seen an increase in concerns among healthcare professionals over the last decade. Healthcare professionals, such as Buchacz & Klausner in 2008, have undertaken various studies in order to attempt to understand the correlation between HIV-infections and secondary syphilis; other studies have confirmed that HIV-infections modify the clinical presentation of syphilis. In order for healthcare professionals to best understand the clinical signs and symptoms of syphilis in an HIV-infected patient, they will need to understand the main symptoms of syphilis, as well as have comprehensive knowledge of the client’s treatment his tory. Scientific data on the oral manifestation of syphilis among HIV-infected patients is very limited; in addition, some healthcare experts confuse the clinical presentation of syphilis with other health conditions, such as squamous cell, carcinomas, hairy leukoplakia, lupus erythematous, oral ulcerations, oral candidiasis and lichen planus (Ramirez-Amador et al, 2012). As a result of the wide spectrum of oral clinical presentation of syphilis among HIV-infected patients, the process of identifying a secondary syphilis infection may become complicated. By considering the fact that reported cases of syphilis have been on the rise over the past decade, especially in HIV-infected patients, this study will

Dark Invasion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Dark Invasion - Essay Example Morgan. The Bomb Squad head of department, Tom Tunney, who is a New York Police Inspector is assigned the crucial mission of seizing them. Tom Tunney assembles a team of operatives to hunt down these conspirators among a very large population of Germans but the more he unveils the enemies plan the more he comes to understand that their plan is way much dangerous and complex than he thought. The New York’s Police Department captain, Tom Tunney, is the one who suspect that the series of explosions that occurs in the country, which particularly targets the ships and destroyed munitions plants, is part of much bigger plan by the enemy to destroy America and he sets on a very determined journey to find the perpetrators. Tunney’s work is remarkable, considering the fact that he had a jurisdictional limitation as he had to work for both the federal government and the NYPD. In this true story tale it is observable that the then head of state, Wilson, Was informed of the plot of the intelligent network of German spies but it seemed not to strongly concern his decision. The Germans were satisfactorily convinced that they were right to wage war to the USA because the claimed neutrality of the Americans was hypocritical and equally dangerous to the father land. Tunney discovers the enemy’s devilish plan to blow out the ST. Patrick Cathedral. The German saboteurs planned to blow out the Cathedral to try and stop the Americans from joining the war on the side of the allies. Although it was not clear to the national security department if it was the activist and the anarchist who were plotting on this, the plan was still shuttered down by the NYPD. Tunney together with his loyal operative, learn of the imminent attack on the church and successfully manages to neutralize the plan which jeopardizes the malicious intensions of the enemy(Howard 32). The German operatives to the

China-home for Apple or Samsung Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

China-home for Apple or Samsung - Research Paper Example The age of consumerism has accentuated the need for business organizations to ensure distinction between products and services so as to emerge successful in the competitive and turbulent business market. A section would also be devoted towards analysing the ethical aspects in marketing communication. Thereafter a primary study would also be conducted to analyse the consumer behaviour of the target market audience so as to finally conclude the study and suggest a set of plausible recommendations for the company so as to ensure sustainable competitive advantage in the lucrative Chinese consumer market. Introduction The era of globalisation has opened up a plethora of opportunities for business organizations. The emergence of new markets like Russia and China has opened up opportunities in a market where the traditional markets like Europe and USA are getting saturated beyond limits. However in order to make a successful international expansion it is very necessary to have a well knit business plan so as to effectively capture the market. Marketing communication plays a very significant role in this regard. This is because of the fact that marketing communications are the only source where the company conveys its intended message to the target market audience. In case of new markets this assumes even more significance as the positioning and image of the brand is largely developed as a result of marketing communication strategy used by the company. The present study would analyse the integrated marketing communication strategy for Apple for its proposed expansion into the Chinese market. The choi ce of the organization and the market assumes significance considering the fact that Apple is one of the most dominant brands and China is the fastest growing market in the world. Market and Literature Review Apple is one of the most repute brands and has been constantly rated among the top brands by leading agencies like Forbes and Fortune (Forbes, 2011). The company’s USP in the market is focussed on its innovative abilities to design new products. The company heavily relies on both internal as well as external communications to drive its products in the market (O'Grady, 2008, p.42). Apple is known to have a communications strategy that involves creation of a buzz while launching a new product or entering a market. The company strives on creating a ‘wow’ factor around the launch of a product. This was evident from the fact that long queues where observed during launch of iPods (ICMR, 2008). Apple’s competitor Samsung on the other hand relies on sponsorsh ips and advertisements on print and electronic media to communicate its message to the target market audience. The pricing of its products are also more competitive as compared to Apple. The product strategy of Apple is largely based on the aspect of innovation and uniqueness in design and features. Apple relies on cult based marketing in which the customers constitute a loyal lot and undertake measures to protect the brand and company. The company believes in turning customers into followers so as to generate loyalty and promote the brand in the market.

Organzition and Adminstraion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Organzition and Adminstraion - Essay Example This paper looks into the US judicial system in terms of its administration and organization, as well as the various issues and concerns that beset it. Further, this paper presents possible solutions to the issues and concerns, along with an organizational model that would best answer the department’s prevalent concerns. The US federal courts comprise the Judiciary Branch of the government, which is organized under the US Constitution and the laws of the US federal government. The federal government as well as each of the forty-nine states has its own criminal justice system, which all respect the rights of the individual as set forth in the court interpretation of the US Constitution, and as defined in case law (Barnett, 2008). State constitutions and laws provide the definition of the criminal justice system of each state, and delegate the authority and responsibility over criminal justice to various jurisdictions, institutions and officials, as well as provide guidelines and definitions of criminal behaviors, groups of children and acts under the jurisdiction of juvenile courts (Ibid.). Further, for the processing of criminal justice that were not established by the State, municipalities and counties define through local ordinances prescribing the local agencies responsible for such cases. The US Congress, on the other hand, has also established a criminal justice system at the federal level to respond to such crimes as bank robbery, kidnapping, and even transporting stolen goods across states (Ibid.). The US justice system has three main components – the police, the courts and the corrections, reflecting the basic processes that justice is served under the US government. Each component functions a vital part in the whole system and is essentially indispensable. In other words, the system is not complete if any of the three components missing. The US

Not sure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 3

Not sure - Essay Example claim that man maintains innate inclinations towards morality, which does not let him to go astray quite unbridled without being responsible to some Supreme Being, who has created His voice in every heart in the form of conscience in order to keep the seduction and temptation of the evil away from him. Human nature, according to this distinguished sage, and its impulses as well, if cultivated, turn into moral virtues. Our natures are, he argues, what heaven has given us (6A.15). Since heaven has created human nature in its own image, it has natural tendencies of inclining towards goodness ultimately. Thus, human nature even remaining indulged into the vice of various kinds, eventually inclines to the traits and characteristics attributed to it by birth. Human nature, Mencius further asserts, is what links us with the non-human universe, the normative order of heaven. Consequently, human soul has been created with the gifted moral values Nature looks for in human actions in one way or the other. Indeed, the quality of this relationship is such that Mencius is able to claim that â€Å"If one knows one’s nature, one will know heaven† (Makeham 2001). The same has also been preached by Mencius’ predecessor Confucius, and the very notion has always been endorsed and projected by the future philosophers and thinkers in their respective philosophical works. Illustrious moralist and sage of ancient Chinese civilization Confucius had preached virtue and compassion towards humanity without discrimination through his preaching. He submits that where there exists the razor of iniquity, inequality, evil and social injustice in a society, there is least probability of the blossoming of the plant of goodness, charity, honesty and wisdom, and vice versa (Yu 2012). The same was the notion promoted by the distinguished ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, who had declared having knowledge of the universal phenomena as a great virtue that protects humans from going astray and

EXPLICATION OF A SONG Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

EXPLICATION OF A SONG - Essay Example It was sung by â€Å"The Beatles† for their album â€Å"Help† in 1965. Since then, the song has achieved milestones over the years. It is a melancholy about a broken love relationship sung by a single member of â€Å"The Beatles†. The story symbolizes the yesterday for the happy days of the past when there used to be joys all around. The basic theme of the song is the message which tells never to lose your love and try to maintain it for the whole of your life. It is love that beautifies the life and nothing else. When there remains no love, one earnestly waits and desires for it to come back. But that never happens as the time once gone never returns. The small lyrical ballad is outstanding in the sense that it narrates the whole story from the very beginning to the end. It has the memories of the golden days, of the separation and the longings for the days to return. The song is complete in nature to the extent that it covers the whole of turns and twists a lov e-story brings with it. The song begins with the title word, â€Å"yesterday†. The poet starts to tell the story of his failure. He tells the reader that there was a time when everything went right for him. There was beauty and love. Life was magnificent. He adds: â€Å"all my troubles seemed so far away† informing the audience that his life had no miseries, sorrows and concerns. What he had to care for was the sweet moments he could enjoy with his girl-friend. Life was no more than a story of the dreamland where all the demands were accord approval. But he knows nothing what happened to his life? The charm of life then was get up from the deep sleep. The troubles which he bade â€Å"good bye† had arrived again. They had the intentions to live there forever: â€Å"now it looks as though they are here to stay†. But as is the nature of love and the story with every lover, hope plays its role does not letting the lover leave its rope; just stick to it. He be lieves in the honesty of the â€Å"yesterday† in the words: â€Å"oh, I believe in yesterday†. The way the â€Å"yesterday† is appealed here is heart-touching. It looks like he is negotiating with the yesterday to persuade her to bring the gone glory to his life once again. Then comes the part of the story where the poet tells us the situation at the present. He tells: â€Å"suddenly, I am not half the man I used to be†. The poet shows us the ruins of his dream valley in the words that he is no more the perfect person. He is living with a broken heart. He sees no attraction in life any more. He convinces us that life comes from inside and it does not matter what looks outside. A man hit at heart can never be taken as alive though walking like a live man. He goes further explaining that: â€Å"there’s a shadow hanging over me†. The darkness prevails over him. He sees no light to proceed in the course of life. Something ugly like shadow has ta ken possession of him. He is not able to see beyond that shadow and for him; the world is a place of anxiety. The poet goes further and complains against the instability of the world and all that is inside it including humans. He weeps that the routine of life did not give him enough time to get to the taste of joys to his full. It was so much a short time for the enjoyment of his love. The troubles were in a very much hurry as to replace the pleasures. The poet’s desire for the â€Å"yesterday†

Pollution Essay Essay Example for Free

Pollution Essay Essay Pollution happens absolutely everywhere, every single second of the day, everywhere on earth. It happened in any city, any town, or any state. You can find pollution in cars, home electronics, personal hygiene products, natural disasters, and even your own home. Pollution is poison for anything that lives and breathes; it could toxify water, air, land, humans, and animals, and is not to be taken lightly. As a law people should be more considerate of their surroundings and try harder to preserve the world we live in, even if it is inconvenient to us. Because if we don’t save ourselves, who will? The effects we could do to save our planet from pollution could be proactive, instead of catastrophic and disastrous. Everyone benefits when we have clean water, air, land, etc. not just one thing. For example, you never hear any news on the TV, or over the internet talking about how a person passed away from clean air overdose, that would be crazy. Instead we hear news like, man died from pollution, family living in home pollution, water tests show pollution particles, the list could go on forever. By identifying the problem early, we can start to reverse the pollution process. Therefore, we can take what we have now and set new standards and laws that can help us from killing ourselves in the long run and putting the earth in a more clean state. The problem is, not everyone agrees with the fact that pollution is hurting us right now, or going to hurt us, and new generations to come. People get this information from insignificant and false sources and then spread that information to others that will willingly listen, without objection. This statement misses the point though; the fact is people are trying to help us now. And even though we might not feel the negative effects, it doesn’t mean it’s not happening to us right now. Some places have higher levels of pollution in their air and water and those people might be in more danger than others, and they might not even know it. For this reason one person cannot do this by themselves, it needs worldwide effort, from everyone. People need to stop being lazy and do something for themselves, and others. Also people need to start thinking about the future, and not just the year that’s going on right now. To meet these high demands of labor and cost, I think people should be required to carpool with other people a few times a week, or stop using girl products like hairspray and other cans of manmade chemicals and CFC’s that deplete the ozone layer and cause minor but significant pollution. If people really did try to change something small they do every day, and everyone did it, think of how much good change could happen. And never think just because something’s small, it won’t hurt â€Å"As much† because its people like that who chose the worst decisions. Also I’m sure for most objects, or personal hygiene products wouldn’t have a problem changing a few chemicals in their product to make it more people and planet friendly. There have been so many companies and organizations that have helped the earth and have reduced the amount of toxins we use. People everyday try to come up with new ideas, and strategies to get us where we need to go, and what we need to do, without the harmful effects of chemicals and toxins. So as iv stated many times in this essay, one little person can make a huge difference, but not only one person can do it alone. We all need to try to help to save our environment from pollution for ourselves, and for future generations. And just think, if everyone changed something in their daily routine to make it more planet friendly, how that could turn out to help all of us in the long run.

Fuzzy Boundaries in HIV Stigma

Fuzzy Boundaries in HIV Stigma Fuzzy Boundaries in the Conceptualization of HIV Stigma: Moving Towards a More Unified Construct Currently, there are 36.7 million people living with HIV (PLWH) worldwide (WHO, 2017). HIV-related stigma continues to be a major concern for PLWH in the United States and overseas (Baugher et al., 2017; Bogart et al., 2008; Herek, Capitanio, & Widaman, 2002; X. Li, Wang, Williams, & He, 2009; Odindo & Mwanthi, 2008) with more than 50% of men and women reporting discriminatory attitudes toward PLWH among countries with data available (UNAIDS, 2015). This is particularly disconcerting given that HIV-related stigma has shown to be associated with negative outcomes in the physical and mental health of PLWH, higher levels of HIV stigma being correlated with higher depression symptoms (L. Li, Lee, Thammawijaya, Jiraphongsa, & Rotheram-Borus, 2009; Onyebuchi-Iwudibia & Brown, 2014; Rao et al., 2012), lower adherence to antiretroviral therapy (Katz et al., 2013), and less access and usage of social and healthcare services (Chambers et al., 2015; Rueda et al., 2016). In general, HIV-related stigma has focused on the individual experience of stigma by PLWH and has been conceptualized into three different types (Earnshaw & Chaudoir, 2009; Nyblade, 2006): the fear of negative attitudes, judgment, and discrimination from HIV status and serostatus disclosure (perceived stigma), the acceptance of negative stereotypes associated with HIV as part of the self or identity (internalized stigma), and the actual experience of discrimination by PLWH (enacted stigma). More recently, some conceptualizations have highlighted the importance of considering HIV-related stigma beyond the individual context as stigma is a social process, a pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that influence change and growth in society (Deacon, 2006; Link & Phelan, 2001; Mahajan et al., 2008; Parker & Aggleton, 2003). This recent shift has led researchers to propose several revisions to the HIV stigma construct. In particular, they argue that HIV-related stigma should be distinguished from discrimination (Deacon, 2006) and that it should be measured at structural and institutional levels (Link & Phelan, 2001; Mahajan et al., 2008; Parker & Aggleton, 2003). Since the conceptualization of HIV-related stigma has practical implications on how it is studied, measured, and treated, the purpose of this paper is to review the validity of the proposed revisions. It will be argued that despite there being a strong theoretical basis for both changes to the conceptualization of HIV-related stigma, psychometric research suggests that enacted stigma should not be removed from the construct, but that HIV-related stigma should be measured across socio-ecological levels. Theoretical Implications of HIV Stigma as a Social Process A majority of the stigma literature derives from the work of sociologist, Erving Goffman. His original theory viewed stigma as a social process (Goffman, 1963), which has important implications on the conceptualization of HIV-related stigma, as research in this area has primarily focused on the construct at an individual level.     Ã‚   Stigma as a Social Process The conceptualization of HIV-related stigma often departs from the definition proposed by Goffman. Goffman defined stigma as â€Å"an attribute that is deeply discrediting† according to society, which diminishes the stigmatized individual from â€Å"a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one† (Goffman, 1963). Although Goffman acknowledged the role of society in stigmatization, researchers limit their definition of HIV stigma and cite sections from Goffman that emphasize stigma as an internal or individual level construct (Link & Phelan, 2001; Parker & Aggleton, 2003). Notably, they highlight how the â€Å"deviant† or â€Å"undesirable difference† of stigma leads to the assumption of a â€Å"spoilt identity† (Goffman, 1963). This operationalization is significant because it implies that the negative value of stigma comes from the individual instead of society. Inherent within Goffman’s definition was the understanding that stigma is a socially constructed concept. He qualified that even though stigma would refer to â€Å"an attribute† it actually was a â€Å"language of relationships† that was required (Goffman, 1963). In other words, Goffman argued that society determines what is â€Å"discrediting† and thereby develops a structure that delineates how the bearers of stigma are devalued across their social relationships. Subsequently, similar to development in Bronfenbrenner’s ecosystem theory (1997), stigma could be seen more as a dynamic social process that is constantly changing over time (Parker & Aggleton, 2003). HIV Stigma and Discrimination When HIV stigma is considered as a social process, the fuzzy boundary between HIV stigma and discrimination becomes clearer. Discrimination highlights the perpetrators of stigmatization, whereas stigma refers to the targets of these negative behaviors (Link & Phelan, 2001; Mahajan et al., 2008; Sayce, 1998). This distinction is important as it has broader social implications in determining who is responsible for stigmatization (Sayce, 1998). By differentiating HIV-related stigma from discrimination, it focuses the blame on the social processes involved with stigmatization rather than on the individual. Deacon (2006) also argues how including discrimination within the construct of HIV-related stigma constitutes conceptual inflation. Within the stigma literature, discrimination is operationalized as an end result of stigma (Jacoby, 1994; Nyblade, 2006) such that the term â€Å"stigma† becomes synonymous with â€Å"both the stigmatizing beliefs themselves and the effects of†¦stigmatization processes† (Deacon, 2006). This definition limits the understanding about the unique effects of stigma because it becomes unclear whether discrimination mediates the association between stigma and various health outcomes. In all, there is a practical and theoretical basis for differentiating HIV stigma from discrimination. HIV Stigma at the Structural Level Since Goffman, researchers have expounded upon the sociological aspects of his theory to include the structural conditions that influence stigma. Link and Phelan (2001) describe how stigmatization can only occur when â€Å"labeling, stereotyping, separation, status loss, and discrimination† happens within the context of an imbalance in power. In other words, all individuals, including those that are stigmatized, can engage in processes related to the stigmatization. Link and Phelan (2001) discuss an example where an individual with mental illness could stereotype one of their clinicians as a â€Å"pill-pusher.† While the person might treat the   clinician differently on the basis of this stereotype, without any economic, social, cultural, and political power, the individual cannot enact detrimental consequences against the clinician, and therefore the clinician and his or her identifying group would not be stigmatized (Link & Phelan, 2001). For PLWH, Parker and Aggleton (2003) further specify that stigmatization is not only contingent upon these social inequities, but that stigma also serves to strengthen and perpetuate differences in structural power and control. In particular, they argue that stigma increases existing power differentials through devaluing groups and heightening the feelings of superiority in others. In recognizing that stigma functions at structural and institutional levels, Park and Aggleton (2003) believe that stigma is a central component in   Based on these theories, it has been proposed that HIV stigma be measured at the structural and institutional level (Mahajan et al., 2008). Measurement of HIV Stigma Knowledge and understanding about HIV stigma is predicated on researchers’ ability to reliably and accurately measure the construct. In turn, even though there is theory to support the differentiation of HIV stigma from discrimination and the measurement of HIV stigma at the structural level, a review of relevant psychometric research is necessary to validate these revisions to the HIV-related stigma construct. HIV Stigma Scale The HIV Stigma Scale developed by Berger, Ferrans, and Lashley (2001) is the most commonly used stigma measure for PLWH (Sayles et al., 2008). It has a total of 40 items scored on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree) with higher scores indicating higher levels of stigma. The internal consistency of the measure has been reliable with different populations, including African Americans (Rao, Pryor, Gaddist, & Mayer, 2008; Wright, Naar-King, Lam, Templin, & Frey, 2007) and PLWH in rural New England (Bunn, Solomon, Miller, & Forehand, 2007). More recently, the HIV Stigma Scale was adapted for use in South India and demonstrated high reliability and validity (Jeyaseelan et al., 2013).    Psychometric Evidence for Measuring HIV Stigma as a Social Process Construct validity for the HIV Stigma Scale is supported by associations with related measures (Berger, Ferrans, & Lashley, 2001). In terms of measuring HIV stigma as a social process, the total HIV stigma scores and the subscale scores on the HIV Stigma Scale show moderate negative correlations with social support availability, social support validation, and subjective social integrations, as well as moderate positive correlations with social conflict. Similar relationships were found between HIV stigma and social support in a meta-analysis by Rueda et al., (2016), higher HIV stigma being associated with lower social support across studies. Overall, there seems to be preliminary evidence that HIV stigma should be conceptualized as a social process. Psychometric Evidence against Chancing the Current Construct of HIV Stigma Through exploratory factor analysis, Berger et al., (2001) determined that there were four interrelated factors from the HIV Stigma Scale: personalized stigma, disclosure concerns, concern with public attitudes toward people with HIV, and negative self-image. These factors could be recoded using current conceptualization of HIV stigma such that personalized stigma is enacted stigma, disclosure concerns and concerns with public attitudes toward people with HIV is perceived stigma, and negative self-image is internalized stigma (Earnshaw & Chaudoir, 2009). Further analysis by Berger et al., (2001) led to the extraction of one higher-order factor. While this provided further evidence of construct validity for the HIV Stigma Scale, if considered within the context of the recoded factors, it would indicate that enacted stigma should not be removed from the conceptualization of HIV-related stigma. Psychometric Measurement of HIV-Related Stigma at Structural Levels Research on the measurement of HIV-related stigma at structural and institutional levels is sparse and limited (Chan & Reidpath, 2005; Mahajan et al., 2008). Of the studies available, only descriptive information is provided on the experience of structural stigma for PLWH (Biradavolu, Blankenship, Jena, & Dhungana, 2012; Yang, Zhang, Chan, & Reidpath, 2005). Within the larger stigma literature itself, very few researchers have considered measuring stigma across different socio-ecological levels (Gee, 2008; Hatzenbuehler et al., 2014). However, there has been growing evidence to suggest that structural levels of stigma are associated with individuals levels of stigma (Evans-Lacko, Brohan, Mojtabai, & Thornicroft, 2012; Pachankis et al., 2015). In their study, Evans-Lacko et al., (2012) attempted to examine the relationships between structural and individual levels of mental illness stigma in 14 European countries. To do so, they combined two international datasets (the Eurobarometer survey and the Global Alliance of Advocacy Networks study) and compared public attitudes related to mental illness with individual measures of internalized stigma, empowerment, and perceived discrimination among individuals diagnosed with a mental disorder. Evans-Lacko and his colleagues (2012) found that people with mental illness in countries with more positive attitudes (lower structural stigma) reported lower rates of internalized stigma and perceived discrimination than in countries with higher levels of structural stigma. Even though both datasets were cross-sectional, limiting casual inferences from the study, the results indicate that there are associations between the measurement of structural and individual levels of stigma (Evans-Lacko et al., 2012; Major, Dovidio, & Link, 2017). In all, there needs to be more research to validate the measurement of HIV-related stigma at structural and institutional levels. Limitations Due to the lack of experimental research on enacted and structural HIV stigma (Mahajan et al., 2008; Nyblade, 2006), relevant studies in this area may suffer from a file drawer problem. In other words, the prevalence of significant results could be inflated given that there are no incentives for publishing non-significant findings. Moreover, a majority of HIV stigma studies utilize a correlational design, and so the directionality of these associations cannot be determined. Thus, even though the understanding of HIV stigma has improved, the effect size and causality of relationships within the construct require further analysis and clarification. Another limitation is that there is heterogeneity in the conceptualization and measurement of HIV-related stigma, which makes it difficult to compare and contrast results (Grossman & Stangl, 2013). Across HIV stigma assessments, researchers measure enacted, perceived, and internalized stigma, suggesting that these are important factors in the conceptualization of HIV-related stigma (Earnshaw & Chaudoir, 2009). However, many measures conflate different constructs with HIV-related stigma and include it in a single scale or subscale (Herek et al., 2002; Kalichman et al., 2009; Visser, Kershaw, Makin, & Forsyth, 2008). This indicates that there still might be ambiguity in terms of how HIV-related stigma is operationalized.   One final limitation is that the high internal consistency of the HIV Stigma Scale (Berger et al., 2001) could be reflective of an attenuation paradox (Clark & Watson, 1995). For example, the factors of disclosure concern and concern with public attitudes toward people with HIV might be redundant. Both factors represent and can be recoded as aspects of perceived stigma (Earnshaw & Chaudoir, 2009). While the HIV Stigma Scale might be reliable and internally consistent, the high correlations between the items on the scale might compromise construct validity of Implications A common conceptualization of HIV stigma is fundamental for future research, assessment, and treatment (Deacon, 2006; Grossman & Stangl, 2013; Mahajan et al., 2008). Without a unified construct of stigma, progress in the field of HIV-related stigma will continue to be impeded by a lack of standardization and incremental validity. The absence of meta-analyses within the literature provides evidence of the difficulty in parsing through the heterogeneity of the HIV stigma construct (Grossman & Stangl, 2013). Future research, then, should prioritize reaching a working consensus on the conceptualization of HIV stigma and developing an agenda that ensures consistent application of that conceptualization across studies. From this common conceptualization of HIV-related stigma, current measures such as the HIV Stigma Scale should be refined (Berger et al., 2001). While convergent validity has been tested through correlations with related measures and constructs (Berger et al., 2001; Earnshaw & Chaudoir, 2009), more research should focus on the strengthening the discriminant validity of these measures. Specifically regarding the HIV Stigma Scale, given that several of the items load onto multiple scales of the measure (Berger et al., 2001; Rao et al., 2008), future revisions should work on improving item discrimination (Sayles et al., 2008). By refining the measures of HIV stigma in conjunction with the conceptualization of HIV stigma, the operationalization of the different HIV stigma types can be improved. In addition, it is necessary to develop complementary measures to assess HIV-related stigma at structural and institutional levels (Chan & Reidpath, 2005; Deacon, 2006; Mahajan et al., 2008). Research efforts within the field of mental illness and stigma could be leveraged to formulate these assessments (see structural stigma section). While it is important to understand the impact of HIV stigma across a variety of social contexts, it is impractical to begin efforts into this area simply by conducting a large number of studies in different environments. Initial efforts should focus on targeting a smaller range of institutions that have presented unique challenges towards PLWH in the past such as healthcare and then build additional measurements out from there if necessary (Chan & Reidpath, 2005). From a more practical perspective, interventions for HIV-related stigma need to address the discriminatory behaviors experienced by PLWH. Despite significant heterogeneity in the HIV stigma literature (Grossman & Stangl, 2013), enacted stigma is a factor that is seen across various measurements and operationalizations of the construct (Earnshaw & Chaudoir, 2009). In terms of treatment outcomes, reducing discrimination against PLWH could have important implications as enacted stigma is negatively correlated with indicators of physical health, including CD4 count and chronic illness comorbidity (Earnshaw, Smith, Chaudoir, Amico, & Copenhaver, 2013). Thus, future intervention research should work on addressing enacted stigma as a specific domain of HIV stigma, measuring enacted stigma consistently across studies, and testing its predictive validity for treatment, care, and prevention outcomes for PLWH (Grossman & Stangl, 2013).   Conclusion Based on the current nomological net, HIV-related stigma should not be differentiated from discrimination. However, there is a need to measure HIV-related stigma in structural and institutional contexts. HIV stigma is a social process that works at the individual level, but the stigmatized person may not be the most important determinant in the development of stigma. Several researchers have theorized that stigmatization is contingent on structural inequities (Link & Phelan, 2001; Mahajan et al., 2008; Parker & Aggleton, 2003) such that interventions that only target stigma and discrimination may ameliorate the negative physical and mental health outcomes associated with stigma, but not address the entire problem and construct (Chan & Reidpath, 2005). Ultimately, more research is required in order to measure HIV-related stigma across socio-ecological levels (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Grossman & Stangl, 2013). Given the heterogeneity and lack of standardization within the HIV stigma literature, it is imperative that researchers in this field understand that science and test validity holds social power and influence. Measurement and psychometrics can drive change in social policy and ideology within society (Messick, 1995). While it is easy to rely on the eminence and eloquence associated with the label of science (Isaacs & Fitzgerald, 1999), researchers have an ethical commitment to follow rigorous standards of empiricism because their work can impact the lives of people. This commitment should be true for all people, but especially for groups like PLWH that continue to suffer from stigmatization. References Baugher, A. R., Beer, L., Fagan, J. L., Mattson, C. L., Freedman, M., Skarbinski, J., & Shouse, R. L. (2017). Prevalence of Internalized HIV-Related Stigma Among HIV-Infected Adults in Care, United States, 2011–2013. AIDS and behavior, 21(9), 2600-2608. doi:10.1007/s10461-017-1712-y Berger, B. E., Ferrans, C. E., & Lashley, F. R. (2001). Measuring stigma in people with HIV: psychometric assessment of the HIV stigma scale. Res Nurs Health, 24(6), 518-529. Biradavolu, M. R., Blankenship, K. M., Jena, A., & Dhungana, N. (2012). Structural stigma, sex work and HIV: contradictions and lessons learnt from a community-led structural intervention in southern India. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 66(Suppl 2), ii95. Bogart, L. M., Cowgill, B. O., Kennedy, D., Ryan, G., Murphy, D. A., Elijah, J., & Schuster, M. A. (2008). HIV-related stigma among people with HIV and their families: a qualitative analysis. AIDS Behav, 12(2), 244-254. doi:10.1007/s10461-007-9231-x Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American psychologist, 32(7), 513. Bunn, J. Y., Solomon, S. E., Miller, C., & Forehand, R. (2007). Measurement of Stigma in People with HIV: A Reexamination of the HIV Stigma Scale. AIDS Education and Prevention, 19(3), 198-208. doi:10.1521/aeap.2007.19.3.198 Chambers, L. A., Rueda, S., Baker, D. N., Wilson, M. G., Deutsch, R., Raeifar, E., . . . Team, T. S. R. (2015). Stigma, HIV and health: a qualitative synthesis. 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AIDS and behavior, 17(5), 1785-1795. doi:10.1007/s10461-013-0437-9 Evans-Lacko, S., Brohan, E., Mojtabai, R., & Thornicroft, G. (2012). Association between public views of mental illness and self-stigma among individuals with mental illness in 14 European countries. Psychol Med, 42(8), 1741-1752. doi:10.1017/s0033291711002558 Gee, G. C. (2008). A multilevel analysis of the relationship between institutional and individual racial discrimination and health status. Am J Public Health, 98(9 Suppl), S48-56. Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma; notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Grossman, C. I., & Stangl, A. L. (2013). Global action to reduce HIV stigma and discrimination. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16(3Suppl 2), 18881. doi:10.7448/IAS.16.3.18881 Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Bellatorre, A., Lee, Y., Finch, B. K., Muennig, P., & Fiscella, K. (2014). Structural stigma and all-cause mortality in sexual minority populations. Soc Sci Med, 103, 33-41. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.06.005 Herek, G. M., Capitanio, J. P., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). HIV-Related Stigma and Knowledge in the United States: Prevalence and Trends, 1991–1999. American Journal of Public Health, 92(3), 371-377. doi:10.2105/ajph.92.3.371 Isaacs, D., & Fitzgerald, D. (1999). Seven alternatives to evidence based medicine. BMJ, 319(7225), 1618. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7225.1618 Jacoby, A. (1994). Felt versus enacted stigma: a concept revisited. Evidence from a study of people with epilepsy in remission. Soc Sci Med, 38(2), 269-274. Jeyaseelan, L., Kumar, S., Mohanraj, R., Rebekah, G., Rao, D., & Manhart, L. E. (2013). Assessing HIV/AIDS stigma in south India: validation and abridgement of the Berger HIV Stigma scale. AIDS Behav, 17(1), 434-443. doi:10.1007/s10461-011-0128-3 Kalichman, S. C., Simbayi, L. C., Cloete, A., Mthembu, P. P., Mkhonta, R. N., & Ginindza, T. (2009). Measuring AIDS stigmas in people living with HIV/AIDS: the Internalized AIDS-Related Stigma Scale. AIDS Care, 21(1), 87-93. doi:10.1080/09540120802032627 Katz, I. T., Ryu, A. E., Onuegbu, A. G., Psaros, C., Weiser, S. D., Bangsberg, D. R., & Tsai, A. C. (2013). Impact of HIV-related stigma on treatment adherence: systematic review and meta-synthesis. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16(3Suppl 2), 18640. doi:10.7448/IAS.16.3.18640 Li, L., Lee, S.-J., Thammawijaya, P., Jiraphongsa, C., & Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (2009). Stigma, social support, and depression among people living with HIV in Thailand. AIDS Care, 21(8), 1007-1013. doi:10.1080/09540120802614358 Li, X., Wang, H., Williams, A., & He, G. (2009). Stigma reported by people living with HIV in south central China. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care, 20(1), 22-30. doi:10.1016/j.jana.2008.09.007 Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing Stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 363-385. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363 Mahajan, A. P., Sayles, J. N., Patel, V. A., Remien, R. H., Ortiz, D., Szekeres, G., & Coates, T. J. (2008). Stigma in the HIV/AIDS epidemic: A review of the literature and recommendations for the way forward. AIDS (London, England), 22(Suppl 2), S67-S79. doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000327438.13291.62 Major, B., Dovidio, J. F., & Link, B. G. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Stigma, Discrimination, and Health: Oxford University Press. Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performance as scientific inquiry into score meaning (Vol. 50). Nyblade, L. C. (2006). Measuring HIV stigma: existing knowledge and gaps. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 11(3), 335-345. Odindo, M. A., & Mwanthi, M. A. (2008). Role of governmental and non-governmental organizations in mitigation of stigma and discrimination among HIV/AIDS persons in Kibera, Kenya. East Afr J Public Health, 5(1), 1-5. Onyebuchi-Iwudibia, O., & Brown, A. (2014). HIV and depression in eastern Nigeria: The role of HIV-related stigma. AIDS Care, 26(5), 653-657. doi:10.1080/09540121.2013.844761 Pachankis, J. E., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Hickson, F., Weatherburn, P., Berg, R. C., Marcus, U., & Schmidt, A. J. (2015). Hidden from health: structural stigma, sexual orientation concealment, and HIV across 38 countries in the European MSM Internet Survey. Aids, 29(10), 1239-1246. doi:10.1097/qad.0000000000000724 Parker, R., & Aggleton, P. (2003). HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: a conceptual framework and implications for action. Soc Sci Med, 57(1), 13-24. Rao, D., Chen, W. T., Pearson, C. R., Simoni, J. M., Fredriksen-Goldsen, K., & Nelson, K. (2012). Social support mediates the relationship between HIV stigma and depression/quality of life among people living with HIV in Beijing. China. Int J STD AIDS., 23. doi:10.1258/ijsa.2009.009428 Rao, D., Pryor, J. B., Gaddist, B. W., & Mayer, R. (2008). Stigma, secrecy, and discrimination: ethnic/racial differences in the concerns of people living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS Behav, 12(2), 265-271. doi:10.1007/s10461-007-9268-x Rueda, S., Mitra, S., Chen, S., Gogolishvili, D., Globerman, J., Chambers, L., . . . Rourke, S. B. (2016). Examining the associations between HIV-related stigma and health outcomes in people living with HIV/AIDS: a series of meta-analyses. BMJ Open, 6(7), e011453. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011453 Sayles, J. N., Hays, R. D., Sarkisian, C. A., Mahajan, A. P., Spritzer, K. L., & Cunningham, W. E. (2008). Development and Psychometric Assessment of a Multidimensional Measure of Internalized HIV Stigma in a sample of HIV-positive Adults. AIDS and behavior, 12(5), 748-758. doi:10.1007/s10461-008-9375-3 UNAIDS. (2015). On the Fast-Track to end AIDS by 2030: Focus on location and population. Retrieved from http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/WAD2015_report_en_part01.pdf Visser, M. J., Kershaw, T., Makin, J. D., & Forsyth, B. W. C. (2008). Development of parallel scales to measure HIV-related stigma. AIDS and behavior, 12(5), 759-771. doi:10.1007/s10461-008-9363-7 WHO. (2017, July ). HIV AIDS: Fact Sheet. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs360/en/ Wright, K., Naar-King, S., Lam, P., Templin, T., & Frey, M. (2007). Stigma Scale Revised: Reliability and Validity of a Brief Measure of Stigma For HIV + Youth. J Adolesc Health, 40(1), 96-98. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.08.001 Yang, Y., Zhang, K., Chan, K. Y., & Reidpath, D. D. (2005). Institutional and structural forms of HIV-related discrimination in health care: a study set in Beijing. AIDS Care, 17, S129-140.

Effectiveness of Aromatherapy for Depression and Stress

Effectiveness of Aromatherapy for Depression and Stress CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION Introduction In chapter five, major finding of the study was discussed, testing of hypothesis followed by examination of the data addressing the research question. In addition, the strengths and weakness of the study was explored. Next the implication of the study is presented followed by recommendations for future research and limitations faced as the study being conducted. 5.1 Overview of the study The study was designed to examine the effectiveness of aromatherapy inhalation for 7 days in reducing depression, anxiety and stress during clinical practice among first year UiTM Nursing students. Numerous research studies have highlighted the relationship between effect of depression, anxiety and stress on nursing student during clinical practice. At the beginning of clinical practice period, the researcher introduced the study objective and informed consent process to the first year nursing student of the Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Puncak Alam. Students who were interested in participating signing an informed consent form. A total of 42 students signed the informed consent and had an opportunity to ask question during initial meeting. Participants completed the DASS questionnaire (pretest) and were selected into two groups from convenient sampling. As a result, 20 participants in experimental group and 22 in the control group for purposes of data analysis. 5.2 Baseline characteristic of participants The sample population of this study was composed of first year nursing student from diploma program in UiTM Puncak Alam from both genders who free from taking any relaxation medication. The study groups were homogenous with respect this characteristics, so influenced of these aspect can be generalized for all the nursing students who were evaluated (p = 0.175, p = 0.716). Summary of the result Objective number 1 To determine the baseline level of anxiety score in experimental and control group. The baseline mean score for depression, anxiety and stress in the control group was 16.14Â ±2.765, 13.32Â ±6.658 and 20.36Â ±2.341 respectively and the baseline mean score for depression, anxiety and stress in the experimental group was 15.25Â ±2.359, 13.20Â ±5.917 and 21.65Â ±2.183. An independent t-test at the 95% confidence interval and .05 level of significance was computed to compare the average depression, anxiety and stress score between both groups, and it was concluded that the sampling process effectively produced equivalent groups with respect to depression, anxiety and stress score at baseline, t =-1.112, p = 0.27, t = -0.61, p = 0.952, t = 1.836, p = 0.074. This indicated that the levels of DAS in the two groups were the same at the beginning. 5.3 Baseline DAS score in both group In this study, for baseline score, both groups was had a moderate level of depression, anxiety and stress (DAS). Possible explanation for the higher prevalence of baseline DAS score among this study population could be due to preparation for practice require more than developing skills in the on campus lab. It entails developing an ability to provide safe and effective care to other human beings in various clinical settings. This components of developing expertise as a student nurse can be very stressful to nursing students and create anxiety. In health professional education, the clinical perspective is identified as fundamental field for students to learn about practice in the ‘actual’ world (Egan Jaye, 2009). Prior to the education of health professionals, in particular nurses, has switched from an apprentice-based training model where the regular practice of task and activities are highlighted, to university-based preparation that educated student to understand situation and pursue and wisely use evidence in practice. (Henderson, Cooke, Creedy Walker, 2012) The clinical practicum is a significant and essential element of any undergraduate nursing degree. Experiences during clinical placement are effective in shaping student attitudes to learning, practice and professional development (Henderson, Cooke, Creedy Walker, 2012). High levels of anxiety can affect student’s learning, performance (Sharif Armitage, 2004; Moscaritolo, 2009) and in some cases retention within a nursing program (Moscaritolo, 2009). According to Melincavage (2011), students likely to experience anxiety when in any new learning experience and while evolve from novice to expert. According to Burnad et al. (2008) and Pulido-Martos et al. (2012) they found that witnessing the death of patient, relationship between student and mentor and/or staff, providing care, lack of knowledge and skills, practical and assignment are common clinical stressors among nursing student. Furthermore, nursing student at both novice and experienced level believed that clinical stressor more stressful that academic and external one (related to daily life) and generate more psychosocial responses such as anxiety, cognitive symptoms and depression (Blomberg, 2014). However, previously recognized clinical stress factor are lack of knowledge and professional ability, lack of understanding with history and medical terms, heavy workload, being in an unfamiliar situation, mistakes with patients or handling of technical instruments (Basso Mussoetal.,2008; Chanetal.,2009; Jimenezetal.,2010). This factor might be more frequent in hospital settings. This could clarify why student more likely t o experience stress during clinical placement in hospital (Blomberg, 2014). A study conducted by Goff (2011) found that nursing students has been long perceived by nursing department and students to experience higher levels of stress than other college student. Nursing student believed that they have little leisure time because they needed to study, with assignments and clinical task (Reeve, Shumaker, Yearwood, Riley Crowell, 2013). Shriver and Scott-Stiles (2000) found another leading factor to high level of stress is that clinical task demanded nursing student to spend substantial time away from campus and also require them to be responsible for the well being of patients In the other word, these activities take off student from normal social development of their friends (Reeve, Shumaker, Yearwood, Riley Crowell, 2013). According to Melincavage (2011), students likely to experience anxiety when in any new learning experience and while evolve from novice to expert. Objective number 2 To compare mean of post depression, anxiety and stress score level between intervention and control group. The H1o was: There is no difference in level of depression, anxiety and stress score between intervention and control group. An independent t-test at the .05 significance level was computed to compare mean of post depression, anxiety and stress score level between intervention and control group. There was a statistically significant difference in the mean of post depression, anxiety and stress score, t = -2.072, p = 0.045, t = -2.625, p = 0.012, t = -3.232, p = 0.002 respectively. The null hypothesis was rejected. It was concluded that there is a significant difference in level of depression, anxiety and stress score between those students who did not received aromatherapy and those student who received aromatherapy after the intervention. Both group showed a decreasing in mean score of DAS after the intervention. However, aromatherapy group significantly lower than control group. In the other word aromatherapy was effectively reduced level of DAS in the experimental group after seven day of inhalation. However, although being exposed to water, mean score of control group also show a reduction in posttest compare to pretest. But, it was not significant as aromatherapy group. Objective no 3 To examine the mean of depression, anxiety and stress score in intervention and control group before and after introducing the intervention. A paired t-test at the 95% confidence interval and .05 significance level was computed to examine mean of depression, anxiety and stress score in experimental and control group before and after introducing the intervention. There was significant different in the mean score of DAS between pretest and posttest among student who received aromatherapy, t = 9.51, p = 0.00, t = 5.39, p = 0.00, t = 11.11, p = 0.00 respectively. The group of student who do not received aromatherapy also significant difference in the mean score of DAS between pretest and posttest t = 4.09, p = 0.001, t = 2.23, p = 0.037, t = 4.87, p = 0.000 respectively. However, mean score of depression and anxiety in the aromatherapy group significantly lower than the control group. 5.4 Reduction of DAS score In our study, intervention group who received aromatherapy inhalation for 7 days showed significance reduction of DAS score with p value 0.045, 0.012, 0.002. The null hypothesis of the study was rejected because there was a beneficial effects and statistically significant effect from aromatherapy in reducing depression, anxiety and stress score in the sample of nursing students. We accept alternative H1 and H2 since there is difference in level of DAS between intervention and control group and intervention group has showed a reduction in level of DAS after introducing the aromatherapy. Result from this study also supports previous research on effectiveness of aromatherapy (Johnson, 2013). This finding is similar to a study conducted among 110 nurses in the hospital. A small bottle containing 3% lavender oil was pinned on their clothes to examine the effectiveness of lavender oil to reduce stress related job among nurses. The study found that there is reduction of the number of stress symptoms for 3 to 4 days in the experimental group after aromatherapy was carried out (Chen, Fang Fang, 2013). Another consistent finding from a study by Yuen, Mei and Wing (2014) found that there was significant improvement in the reduction of stress level (p = 0.001) and the reduction of anxiety level (p = 0.044) when compared pre and post aromatherapy inhalation among nursing student in Hong Kong facing final examination. The result from this study similar to previous study conducted to determine the impact of aromatherapy on the anxiety level of patients experiencing coronary angiography. The study concluded that anxiety level decreased significantly in the intervention group compared with the control group after aromatherapy (P However, in this study, participant in control group showed a reduction in the level of DAS after the intervention. This result showed that nursing students seek for other intervention or coping method to overcome the depression, anxiety and stress during clinical practice. A study carried on baccalaureate nursing students in Jordan in their initial period of clinical practice found that needed support and guidance from clinical instructors helped to reduce stress and promote a positive clinical experience. Furthermore, nursing student applied the most common used of coping strategy in relieving stress such as a problem solving behavior followed by staying enthusiastic and conversion of attention from the stressful event to other things was of coping strategies ( Shaban, Khater Akhu-Zaheya, 2012). Other than that, another study carried out by Por, Barriball, Fitzpatrick and Roberts (2011) found another factor that relieving stress was emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence was absolutely related to well-being (p 5.5 Recommendation The results of this pretest, posttest design study revealed that the effect of aromatherapy oil on depression, anxiety and stress among first year nursing students during clinical practice was statistically significant. Based on previous discussions in this chapter and the rationale for this study, future research is recommended in nursing education with large sample and close room to allow the aroma ventilated in the room. Other as this study has shown the effectiveness of aromatherapy in reducing depression, anxiety and stress among nursing student, this evidence based will be suggested to UiTM Nursing Department to apply this method to nursing student especially during attending clinical practice. Other than that, aromatherapy also can use for nursing student before attending exam especially objective structured clinical examination (OSCE). 5.6 Implication of the study The implication of the study are that, it can increase awareness to the nursing department about problem of nursing student during clinical practice and the negative effect toward nursing curricular. It also exposed and encourages the lecturer or staff in the nursing department on the utilization of the aromatherapy among nursing student. The finding of this study can provide a nursing student with stress coping method using aromatherapy. With the use of aromatherapy, student can focus on learning and perform procedure in the clinical area effectively and increasing the quality of patient care. Furthermore, aromatherapy is a safe, cost-effective, time appreciative intervention that can be implemented in nursing education. 5.7 Limitation The following limitations were identified during the administration and analysis of the current study to assess the effect of aromatherapy on depression, anxiety and stress among first year nursing students during clinical practice. The purpose of this section is to provide a critical assessment of the study’s limitations. The primary researcher did not have control over where the duration of inhalation during the intervention due to participants freely to stay in any room instead of their own room. As a result, the duration of inhalation may have contributed to the significance of pre and posttest in the control group. Participant in the control group may stay in the room of participant in experimental group. Thus, the participant was indirectly inhaled the aromatherapy oil. It would be beneficial to place the both group in different block of residential college. Summary In conclusion, the overall study’s findings were statistically and clinically significant in demonstrating that aromatherapy is able to reduce level of depression, anxiety and stress during clinical practice among first year nursing student. Theses results are similar to those study demonstrated by Johnson (2013) Chen, Fang Fang (2013) andYuen, Mei Wing (2014) with the aim to measure the effectiveness of aromatherapy in reducing depression stress and anxiety among nursing student and nursing staff. An extension of this study over a longer time period with a larger sample size and using Randomized Control Trial (RCT) design may provide better results in future studies. Conclusion This quasi-experimental study set out to examine the effectiveness of aromatherapy in reducing depression, anxiety and stress during clinical practice among first year nursing student. The result showed that such students perceived moderate level of depression, anxiety and stress prior to attending clinical placement in hospital. The purpose of reducing depression, anxiety and stress among nursing student is part of strategy to promote effective learning environment especially during attachment in hospital. Depression, anxiety and stress can hinder student’s self confidence to perform nursing care to patient. Other than that, it gives a bad impression toward nursing department as their student unable to show a competency during performs a procedure in the hospital. Since clinical practice is vital element in nursing education, students are believes to apply the basic nursing skills in the clinical areas that enable the application of theoretical knowledge to develop. However, if the students unable to relieve their depression, anxiety and stress, these objectives are unable to be achieve and give a loss to student and nursing department. Therefore, there is a need for nursing department to encourage student to utilize the evidence based-practice especially during attending clinical practice with recomm ended solution which is aromatherapy inhalation. The research gap has been addressed and the findings showed consistent with previous studies. Research question of this study has been answered and the study null hypothesis was rejected based on the data analysis. The overall finding showed that aromatherapy has a positive effect in reducing depression, anxiety and stress among nursing student. The finding identified pointed to rejection of study null hypothesis because the use of lavender aromatherapy significantly reduce the level of depression, anxiety and stress in nursing student compared to use of water. Hence, aromatherapy was proven as an effective coping strategy in this study in addition to others in the literature. This result supported previous studies on same setting and population (Johnson, 2013). It is critical for nursing student to overcome depression, anxiety and stress and aromatherapy can facilitate to relieve these problems. Although sample size in this study was small, there exists quantitative evidence that aromatherapy has a role to play in nursing curricular especially among students attending clinical area. The design and results of this study will hopefully inspired nursing researcher to explore the phenomenon of depression, anxiety and stress during clinical practice and create innovative practices to minimize it in the future. Nursing faculty must continue to create advanced method to facilitate success for student who experience depression, anxiety and stress The increasing diversity of nursing students in age, gender, and ethnicity will continue to grow in future years, and nursing faculty will require more expertise that addresses students holistically (Jeffreys, 2012).

Loneliness and Isolation in Baldwin’s, Here be Dragons :: Here Dragons

Loneliness and Isolation in Baldwin’s, Here be Dragons I am not a targeted minority and I have never felt discriminated against, but I certainly have found my self weighed down, unable to keep up, in the constant rush and roar that is our society. I have felt isolated and left behind by everything around me, and this utter loneliness is not something that is easy to deal with. This loneliness inevitably turns to self-hatred as I ask myself why I can’t keep pace with everyone else when they seem to be doing just fine? Reading James Baldwin has reminded me that I’m not alone, and that there are many ways to deal with the isolation one feels within society. For some, struggling to keep afloat in the mainstream as it rushes along is the most comprehensible way, but for others, like Baldwin, it’s easier to simply get out of the water and walk along the bank at his own chosen pace. In Baldwin’s â€Å"Here be Dragons† he addresses the issues of loneliness and isolation in many ways. In the end, he comes to the conclusion that everyone has a part of everyone else inside of him or her, much like a yin yang: â€Å"†¦we are all androgynous†¦because each of us, helplessly and forever, contains the other-male in female, female in male, white in black and black in white. We are a part of each other†(160). If we are all a part of each other, then we do not need to try to keep up with the current of society to stay connected with the world. We can go wherever we please, whenever and however, and never have to fear the loss of the vital links that keep humans human. In the beginning of his story Baldwin speaks of his young adolescence during which various men constantly take advantage of him. In this part of life he speaks much of loneliness. First, as he talks about those who are literally androgynous, containing male and female parts, he guesses at the â€Å"†¦all-but-intolerable loneliness†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (150) that they must feel at not being able to find love by being themselves for fear of humiliation at being so different. Later, he tells of his many encounters with men that appeared to be stereotypical American citizens looking â€Å"†¦like cops, football players, soldiers†¦or bank presidents†¦construction workers†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (153). These men would accost Baldwin in dark movie theaters and in the alleys at night begging or bullying him to take them to bed.

Abusive Relationships and Domestic Violence :: Violence Against Women Essays

Domestic violence describes a situation where one person in a relationship is using violence to control and dominate another person. Domestic violence victims and their batterers cut across all socioeconomic, demographic, and professional lines. It is an epidemic that is emphasized particularly with the female gender. While physical assault is often times the most common form of abuse, it is important to acknowledge that other forms of abuse are just as detrimental. Often times, fear and isolation are particularly powerful in preventing women from leaving a violent relationship.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Domestic violence is a common crime in America, especially amongst the female gender. Studies indicate that nearly one-third of American women (31 percent) report being physically or intimately abused by a husband or boyfriend at some point in their lives (Commonwealth Fund Survey, 1998). Domestic Violence towards women is a problem in the United States that is usually over looked and almost always not noticed by Society today. Violence is defined by the Riverside Webster's Dictionary (p.755) as: 1. Physical force employed so as to damage or injure. 2. As an instance of violent action. If this is the case than why is it that so many women are beaten by loved ones each year and little or nothing is done to correct this violent and hostile situation?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The battered woman is pictured by most people as a small, fragile, haggard person who might once have been pretty. She has several small children and is frequently assumed that she is poor and from a minority group. She is accustomed to living in violence, and her fearfulness and passivity are emphasized above all. Although some battered women do fit this description, research proves it to be false stereotype(Walker p.18). In fact most battered women have highly lucrative jobs such as doctors or lawyers, Corporation executives and nurses. Battered women are found in all racial, religious and ethical backgrounds as well as age groups and educational levels.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Statistical information on domestic abuse commonly notates that women in intimate relationships are amongst the greatest risk. Statistics also revealed that domestic abuse is the leading cause of harm amongst females of all races that usually involve a weapon. "Approximately one in four attacks involved the use of a gun or knife,† according to a studies. Young, black and Hispanic women were especially vulnerable, as were poor single women with low education levels who lived in inner cities.

Kant and Business

Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher from the 18th century, who put forward a new theory of morality. He was very much concerned with formulating a criterion of moral obligation that is different from the traditional moral philosophies of his time, which consisted in the development of good character traits that must be possessed by humans. Other moral philosophies rejected by Kant include utilitarianism, which determined morality based on the consequence of their actions (The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2001).Kant was able to formulate one supreme principle of morality, which he called the categorical imperative.   Kant thus wrote several works to explain his theory of morality, with titles such as â€Å"The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals,† â€Å"The Critique of Practical Reason,† and â€Å"The Metaphysics of Morals (The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2001).† His first work, The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals gave Kant†™s clearest explanation of his notion of the categorical imperative.Kant posited that the categorical imperative is the ultimate moral principle, which means that it could serve as the moral principle to guide to all human actions. Given the huge function of the categorical imperative, Kant provided that it must meet specific criteria. Hence, the categorical imperative should be objective, rational and freely chosen (The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2001). The categorical imperative was formulated, thus:â€Å"So act, that the rule on which thou actest would admit of being adopted as a law   Ã‚   by all rational beings. (Kant,1785).†Kant’s moral philosophy is centered on the notion of obligation. This is because Kant believed it is best to have an objective rationale for morality, rather than subjective factors such as pleasure. Moreover, Kant believed that the proper actions of man could be determined through reason alone (The Internet Encyclopedia of Philo sophy, 2001).Kant believed that moral obligation would be met when three essential elements are complied with. The first one involves obligation, which serves as the rational consideration for the human will. Second, this obligation shall be expressed in the form of a command that demands a specific course of action. Lastly, Kant demands thatthe moral standard should not be based on consequences of the act. (The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2001).closely connected with the categorical imperative is the principle of universalizability, formulated by Kant as follows:  Ã¢â‚¬Å"So act, that the rule on which thou actest would admit of being adopted as a law by all rational beings (Kant, 1785).†This principle means that an action can only be considered an ethical imperative if his desired action could be formulated as a general rule for all humans facing similar circumstances in the future (Kant).Laws that could serve as an example of Kant’s ethical philosophy in th e business context are laws against job discrimination. There are many laws that prohibit businesses from discriminating employees on account of their age, gender, national origin, color, or religion. Examples of these laws are the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Equal Pay Act of 1963, and the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission).All of these laws comply with the criteria set by Kant to his categorical imperative. These laws look at the notion of obligation and make the laws applicable to all people in similar situations. They also serve as definite rule of conduct that are based on reason and not subjective factors like emotions.ReferencesKant, I. (1785). The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals.The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2001). The Categorical Imperative. Retrieved    January 31, 2008, from http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/categorical-imperative.htmlThe U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Federal Laws Prohibiting Job   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Discrimination Questions And Answers. Retrieved January 31, 2008, from   Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.eeoc.gov/facts/qanda.html

Culture of the 1950s Essay

Websites allow global cross focussing and services distri alone nowion done intranets, extranets and net profit Websites. Both groups of designers and professional analysts concur that a well-designed user interface is an essential single-valued function that improves the appeal and operation of the Web, allowing browsers or tourists to be converted into customers and residents. Recognizing demographic form and intellectual the users argon the two main centering of attention in the user-interface development process.However, these differences whitethorn demonstrate worldwide cultures in a global parsimony. The touch of culture in web content and in additionls is a promoter which companies that aim to engage in online outside(a) business should consider. Few important pointers should be regarded. For instance, a person has a front-runner website, how might this site be still in countries like Paris, USA, London, Japan, or India, presume that enough verbal translation ar carried out?There might be manything in a websites metaphors, interaction, psychogenic model or even the way offend or alienate a user. The date, or so Culture of the 1950s is hotshot of the controversial occlusions in the Statesn biography marked by changes in worldviews of peck and equal rights movements, sassy friendly value but old traditions dominated in the rules of bon ton. The World Wars had a great impact on heathen, political, companionable and economic demeanor changing thinking and redact of wad. The post-war issue of cartridge clip became a watershed amidst old and raw world of meaning, economy and ideas.Thesis The 1950s represents a magazine of disruption because the old set were jilted by the smart set but crude ones had not been formed and accepted yet. The setoff half of the XX century changed greatly views of people and their destinies. The large-scale death and close exacted by World War II destroyed the security that had made es sential history a comfortable apostrophize to inter subject politics. The 1950s became an edge of the friendly change marked the beginning of the XX century.Such set as consumerism, fashionable way of tone and stylish redeeming(prenominal)s were rejected by the society faced with grievances and disenchantment of war time (Fukuyama 8). Further shop for the old affable orientation to military man races impulses has been provided recently by a growing body of literature which seeks to written document the innately violent and aggressive aspects of human behavior (Booker 34). In all these convergence views of human disposition, trust, intimacy, and openness are virtually self-destructive, and vulnerability and unguarded expressiveness become a positive threat.In this area, the puritan commandment was most explicit and ponderous. During 1950s, Americans did not deport a culture of consensus influenced by assorted social factors and liberation movements the social vitali ty was influenced by feminist ideas and racial question. The assist wave of feminism was diverse and touch lesbian, black, liberal and social feminism movements. informal liberation was a factor which had a great influence on the national idea during the middle of the XX century.Women salaried dismantleicular attention to the role of versed relations and sexual freedom in the society and their role in shaping of self and universal order. Martin Luther King nonionic antiracial campaigns addressing a very important puzzle of racial in comparability in America and its impact on the society. King judge that many people would awake from capacious sleeping and start fighting, because the established temper grants the right to the populace, and no doubt that in modern society the main role is featured to democracy and liberty.Social differences withal influenced culture and direct to the disruption (Booker 24). During the former period, the good life consisted of work, work conducted with a religious position, for work was dedicated to God. The new way of liberation movements promulgated ideas of equality and equal pay for men and women promise with the old values and norms (Fukuyama 237). Old social order and worldviews were rejected but the society did not create new values and traditions to replace the old ones.The puritan ethos in itself contained a number of crucial inconsistencies. They were exacerbated by the appearance of a set of values derivation from and entirely different seed and based on an entirely inappropriate set of premises about the nature of man. There were the pop values founded on the assumption that man is innately good and trustworthy and that society is a reduce among men that should enhance rather than determine mans humanity (Fukuyama 186).The themes of equality, social responsibility, democracy, liberty, and fraternity confronted the already internally unlike themes of the world view and resulted in a dizzying welt er of confusion and paradox. The internally irrational aspects of old views, combined with new democratic values together constitute anything but the disruption. In spite of the fact that more or less critics see 1950s as the consenual period, Derbyshire explains that The main reason the 1950s looks so good to so many of us is that in moving from the old order to the new, we lost much of our civilizational confidence.You may hypothesize that that confidence was misplaced, or an illusion you may even say that it was obnoxious, and good excreting to it and you may be right on all points (Derbyshire cited Young & Young 29). American young people have familial a spurious culture, a set of inconsistent arrangements and attitudes which have necessitated a manikin of psychological and sociological stratagems aimed at disguising the canonic lack of integrity and consistency in our culture.In the novel On the pathway, shit Kerouac vividly portrays this process through life and expec tations of the main characters, Sal and Dean. Denial, self-deception, com functionmentalization are some of the stratagems employed to cope with this strike state of affairs (Fukuyama 76). Kerouac portrays that segment of the jr. genesis was attacking the value orientations deriving from our puritan heritage. Such a cipher and open-eyed confrontation was precisely what was necessary before any resolution of some of the inconsistencies can be attained.Sal says I complete that these were all the snapshots which our children would look at someday with wonder, thinking their parents had lived smooth, well-ordered, stabilized-within-the-photo lives and got up in the dawning to walk proudly on the sidewalks of life, neer dreaming the raggedy madness and riot of our actual lives, our actual night, the hell of it, the senseless conceitedness (Kerouac 208). It is just this resolution that the new generation were exploring in their alternative versions of the good life.The new generati on interpreted the conquest goals of their parents as extremely constricting and threatening, and they were passing sensitive to the props adults use to reenforce lives that were somehow less than fulfilling. Cultural diversity (and a new wave of immigration) added social tension and heated liberation movements. by chance the most interesting parts of the new ethic were themes which can be seen as not traditional or indigenous, that was the real foreign elements, which because they were new arouse the most alarm, fear, and often repressive responses on the part of adults.The merchants of popular culture used the blithesome phrase, the beat generation, to refer to the group of people who celebrate the present and attempt to go through it as timelessly and intensely as possible. existence was desired for its own sake and change state disappeared as a desired way of life (Booker 65). For instance, the novel by Jack Kerouac originated in racial fetishism and reflected phrase a nd lyric regular for diverse society and culture. Immigrants had an impact on literature and language using specific vocabulary and colloquialisms typical for their cultures (Nicholls 525).Another element which must be regarded as distinctly new was the attitude toward affluence, money, and private property on the part of these young people. Traditional adult mastery was regarded by them as too expensive, that was requiring too much sacrifice of the self, and of spontaneity, freedom and integrity, and good-looking too little in give up (Fukuyama 270). In sum, the 1950s represents a time of disruption influenced by a intermixture of the old and new social values. The diminution of traditional culture encouraged individualization which placed the self at the midsection of concerns.Increasing social diversity led to a general relativism, not just in matters of taste or moral philosophy but even in matters of fact. These values were genuinely believed, there is no doubt, on th e part of the parents, but the parents life experiences were so different as to locate them in a different culture. Life experiences were drastically different from the secure and protected environment before the WWII. The 1950s represents the disruption influenced by persona experiences of two different generations, cultural diversity and new social order. whole kit and caboodle Cited1. Booker, M. K. The Post-Utopian Imagination American Culture in the Long 1950s. Greenwood fix, 2002. 2. Fukuyama, F. The Great Disruption merciful Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order. Free Press 1st edition, 2000. 3. Kerouac, J. On the Road. New York Viking, 1957. 4. Nicholls, B. The liquescent Pot That Boiled Over racial Fetishism and the Lingua Franca of Jack Kerouacs Fiction MFS Modern Fiction Studies, 49 (2003) 524-549. 5. Young, W. H. , Young, N. K. The 1950s (American Popular Culture by History). Greenwood Press, 2004.